Environmental Politics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Environmental Politics - Essay Example Protests do not necessarily lead to environmental legislations being passed or considered as pointed out by Agnone. This is just basic assumption based on generalization of research results forgetting that communities are different and just because several protests over legislations got recognition and quick action does not mean that it is the only channel to enforce policy changes (Agnone 1599). The author should have carried out more research to compare the number of policies that have been passed without protest against those passed with protest before writing the article and present the evidence in writing. The suggestion in Kuzmiaks article that the American Environmental Movement is gaining popularity and support recently as a result of their past history is not entirely correct. The world not only America has in the recent decades been experiencing changes in environment as a result of the climate change. With the effects starting to be experienced in form of hurricanes in the US, a change of heart to support environmental groups and activists has had to take place and the fact that this group has been there for a long time hence people recognize it is what has made the increase in popularity (Kuzmiak

Dora the Explorer Essay Example for Free

Dora the Explorer Essay The series centers around a Latina girl named Dora Marquez with a love of embarking on quests related to an activity in which she would like to partake or some place that she wants to go, accompanied by her talking purple backpack and anthropomorphic monkey companion named Boots (named for his beloved pair of red boots). Each episode is based around a series of ritualistic events that occur along the way during Doras travels, along with obstacles that she and Boots are forced to overcome or puzzles that they have to solve (with assistance from the viewing audience) relating to riddles, the Spanish language, or counting. Common rituals may involve Doras encounters with Swiper, a bipedal, anthropomorphic masked thieving fox whose attempts at stealing the possessions of others must be prevented through fourth wall-breaking interaction with the viewer. However, on occasions where Swiper succeeds in snatching the belongings of other people, the viewer is presented with the challenge of helping Boots and Dora locate the lost items. Another obstacle involves encounters with another one of the programs antagonists; the Grumpy Old Troll dwelling beneath a bridge that Dora and Boots must cross, who challenges them with a riddle before permitting them the past that needs to be solved with the viewers help. Known for the constant breaking of the fourth-wall depicted in every episode, the audience is usually presented to two primary landmarks that must be passed before Dora can reach her destination, normally being challenged with games or puzzles along the way. The episode always ends with Dora successfully reaching the locale, singing the We Did It! song with Boots in triumph. On numerous occasions, television specials have been aired for the series in which the usual events of regular episodes are altered, threatened, or replaced. Usually said specials will present Dora with a bigger, more whimsical adventure than usual or with a magical task that must be fulfilled, or perhaps even offer a series of different adventures for Boots and Dora to travel through. They might be presented with an unusual, difficult task (such as assisting Swiper in his attempts to be erased from Santa Clauss Naughty List) that normally is not featured in average episodes, or challenge Dora with a goal that must be achieved (such as the emancipation of a trapped mermaid). Sometimes, the specials have involved  the debut of new characters, such as the birth of Doras superpowered twin baby siblings and the introduction of the enchanted anthropomorphic stars that accompany Dora on many of her quests.

Civil engineering Essay Example for Free

Civil engineering Essay In modern usage, civil engineering is a broad field of engineering that deals with the planning, construction, and maintenance of fixed structures, or public works, as they are related to earth, water, or civilization and their processes. See also: Earth Climate Geochemistry Environmental Science Geology Matter Energy Civil Engineering Engineering Engineering and Construction Most civil engineering today deals with power plants, bridges, roads, railways, structures, water supply, irrigation, environmental, sewer, flood control, transportation, telecommunications and traffic. In essence, civil engineering may be regarded as the profession that makes the world a more agreeable place in which to live. Engineering has developed from observations of the ways natural and constructed systems react and from the development of empirical equations that provide bases for design. Civil engineering is the broadest of the engineering fields, partly because it is the oldest of all engineering fields. In fact, engineering was once divided into only two fields, military and civil. Civil engineering is still an umbrella term, comprised of many related specialities. For more information about the topic Civil engineering, read the full article at Wikipedia.org, or see the following related articles: Traffic engineering (transportation) — Traffic engineering is a branch of civil engineering that uses engineering techniques to achieve the safe and efficient movement of people and goods. .. Related Stories Researchers Building Lightweight Bridge For The 21st Century (January 28, 1999) — The bridge of the 21st century wont be made of concrete and steel, but of strong, lightweight materials equipped with electronic and optical sensors that warn engineers of any potential read more Wireless Nano Sensors Could Save Bridges, Buildings (April 12, 2010) — Could inexpensive  wireless sensors based on nanotechnology be used to alert engineers to problematic cracks and damage to buildings, bridges, and other structures before they become critical? A read more NSF Funds First Phase Of Earthquake Network (September 7, 2000) — The National Science Foundation (NSF) has awarded $300,000 to the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign to design a national online network that will transform earthquake engineering read more Wind Expert Cites Poor Building Practices In Connection With Storm Deaths And Destruction (March 4, 1998) — National wind expert Dr. Peter Sparks, a professor of civil engineering and engineering mechanics at Clemson University, cites poor practices in connection with last weeks tornado-related death read more Quicky Assembled Bamboo Bridge, Strong Enough For Trucks, Opens In China (December 18, 2007) — In China, bamboo is used for furniture, artwork, building scaffolding, panels for concrete casting and now, truck bridges. The sustainable design is the first of its kind: the 10-meter span in Hunan read more

Family issues becoming social problems Essay Example for Free

Family issues becoming social problems Essay Family, as what sociologists address, is a social institution. Families are shaped by the family members’ personality. Individual members affect their relationship that is greatly influenced by experience. Families are also affected with the other social institution in the society like law, religion and education. Thus, families are subject to changes whether these changes gave advantages and disadvantages, the family has to cope up and make adjustments. Failure to do so will affect society and social problems might arise. This twist and turns have been quite evident as the time passes by. Single parents, careerist mothers, absent fathers, and live-in partners are blamed as the root cause of many of societys problems that could lead to persistent poverty, drug abuse, academic failure or out-of-school youths, and juvenile crime. This can be traced back to the early society that calls for historical perspective(Steven Mintz, 2003). History of the American Family In 1920, majority of American families are the traditional type; the father is the breadwinner, the wife is the home-maker and the children attend the school. Unwanted pregnancies happened between 1940 and 1958. Families of the 1950s are characterized by increase in birth rate, a stable divorce rate, and the age of marriage decline. During the early and at the middle of the nineteenth century, divorce rate began to rise because of its legislative order to be legalized. Spousal and child abuse gave rise and this can be reflected with the increase in assaults and murders committed against relatives and family members. Highest divorce cases happened at the beginning of the twentieth century. Single parenting, children in orphanage, infant mortality and early widowhood are the other changes happened in the past years(Steven Mintz, 2003). Family issues becoming social problem Divorce and single parenting From the point of view of some, divorce is an indication of failure of American family. But for others, it is viewed as a sign of freedom from men that women do enjoy. After World War II, it is documented that the rate of divorce increased and these may be an indication of the changing views and role of women in the society and their need to be free from social and financial dependence upon men. However, the dramatic increase of divorce rate has greatly affect the economical and social stability experienced by most of the divorced women that caused social problem for the economic well-being of the divorced women and the children are highly compromised. On average, women earn less income than men, households that headed by the divorced women are further disadvantaged, also, the lack of adequate and consistent child support added to the economic dilemma of divorced women (Dennis L. Peck). Spousal Abuse  Among the cause of violence between couples are: incompatibility between them which they discovered after the marriage and such difference arises when there is great disagreement and animosity between them, the couple is under stress and frustration therefore burst it out to one another and lastly, if the wife is a masochist or very awkward or very provocative(Rudi Dallos). Child abuse and neglect A child that is not properly taken cared of, not properly fed, deprived of basic necessities, proper medical care and treatment, and too much physical abuse is a violation to the child’s welfare and is considered as a criminal behavior. Juvenile Delinquency According to a study, broken homes are associated with juvenile delinquency. Levels of juvenile delinquency were much higher in teenagers living with single fathers and lowest among teenagers living with both parents and one of the suggestive reasons for this is due to inadequate parental involvement in the life of the child. The lack of guidance and the absence of close relationships between the child and parents contributed to the causes of the delinquency(Crystal L. Murry). Financial stress Financial stress can directly and indirectly affect children because it increases parental mental and emotional distress, which limits a parent’s capability to respond sensitively and consistently to their children’s needs. More specifically, parents that are more commonly observed among low-income populations have behaviors of parental harshness, non-responsiveness, and inconsistency and are assumed to arise in part from the high levels of parental stress that accompany poverty. Parents having low income have the tendency to fail to express their affection and fail to respond to their child’s needs. (H. Abigail Raikes). Gay and Lesbian Families Sigmund Freud viewed homosexuality as a disturbed psychosexual development wherein the social orientation of the child is due to its relationship with his or her parents. Psychologists, as well as other professionals form other disciplines such as endocrinology and genetics have studied and discovered other possible causes of homosexuality (Dennis L. Peck). Before, same-sex families were inconceivable. However, in 1980s, the situation began to change and have changed the views of family life for gays and lesbians. Due to socioeconomic independence of women of lesbian families, the medical advances of in-vitro fertilization and sex transplant, acceptance of gays and lesbians by adoption agencies and courts, planned gay and lesbian parenting had increased tremendously but during the late 1980s and early 1990s, there was argument about same-sex families, particularly child-rearing by gays and lesbians. Solutions to Problems Having time for the family will be helpful in strengthening the family and businesses providing flexible working schedule will be of great help. The power of media has great influence on the youth; therefore, they should make effort on portraying positive views on marriage and valuing education. The parents should be attentive to their child’s learning in and out of school. No-fault divorce legislation establishes conjugal property that should be divided by both parties, assigning the child’s custody, and awarding alimony. Open communication is important so that problems and conflicts can be addressed within the members of the family. Nowadays, it is acceptable that both parents are working to support the financial needs of the family but make sure that there is still time for relaxation and bonding of the family members especially during special occasions. There are also government agencies, insurance company, law firms and consultants that provide legal and financial support for the child, spouse and elder that are victims of domestic violence.

Case Study Stress Related Essay Example for Free

Case Study Stress Related Essay Michael is to 52-year-old male who was referred to me for memory problems. Michael stated that his wife has complained that he has become very forgetful lately. Michael also stated that he feels anxious due to the fact that his wife has threatened divorce, because he works too much and the thought that he may lose his job. He also explained that at times it’s very difficult for him to pay attention in class. He stated that his mind wonders allowing him to remember only main concepts and not the details of material. When an individual is experiencing problems which cause extreme stress and anxiety that Michael is experiencing it can cause memory loss and what psychologist calls â€Å"flowing consciousness†. When an individual receives new information it goes to the sensory memory where it is coded then to the working memory for temporary storage and manipulation of the task. The working memory is a combination of attention, concentration, short-term memory and has a limited capacity (Cowan, 2005). Basic structure and function of memory can be explained through what is called the stage model theory that was initially proposed in 1968 (Mcleod, 2007) The stage model consists of three stages: sensory memory, short-term memory and long-term memory (Clark, 2012). Sensory memory is the first stage of memory. Memories are stored here for a very short time approximately 3 or 4 seconds (Clark, 2012). Long enough for the information to be coded and sent to the short term memory (Clark, 2012). Short term memory is active memory or what you are thinking of at this given moment. It is also called the working memory (Ashcraft, 2001). Long term memory is information that is stored in memory, but mainly outside our consciousness (MRC, 1993). However it can be recalled through our working memory (MRC, 1993). The working memory has three components (Ashcraft, 2001. The main component is called the central executive (Ashcraft, 2001). It regulates and coordinates the flow of information within the working memory (Ashcraft, 2001). It also performs storage and processing functions. The second is the Phonological Loop (Ashcraft, 2001). This component stores verbal material (Ashcraft, 2001). The third is the visiospatial sketchpad  that processes material based on its visual and spatial characteristics (Ashcraft, 2001). There is significant evidence that stress affects the working memory (Luethi, 2009). For example, an individual’s ability to solve math problems, reading and retrieval of information from long term memory are all affected by stress (Luethi, 2009). Stress also affects an individual’s ability to accurately recall emotional events (Luethi, 2009). For example, the case involving Ronald Cotton and Jennifer Thompson who was convicted of rape and spent 10 years in prison, because of the victim’s misidentification. Cotton was later released due to DNA evidence (Thompson, 2000). â€Å"Psychological research findings show that many circumstances that lead to eyewitness testimony may be flawed and manipulated, says APAs general counsel Nathalie Gilfoyle† (Azar, 2011). â€Å"It is no longer enough to make a conviction in our legal system today, because it is unreliable† (Azar, 2011). The limbic system is the part of the brain that is responsible for memory as well as feelings of pleasure (Bailey, 2012). It consists of two large structures called the amygdala and hippocampus (Bailey, 2012). These two structures play an important role in memory. The amygdala determines what memories are to be stored and where they are to be stored within the brain (Bailey, 2012). â€Å"The hippocampus is responsible for sending memories out to the cerebral hemisphere for long-term storage and when necessary an individual is to retrieve them† (Bailey, 2012). Stress can be very harmful for the limbic system as seen in this case. Michael is experiencing several of the affects. For Michaels working memory to function properly it needs Michael’s ability to concentrate and be fully attentive and this is almost impossible when there is extreme stress. Michael is so stressed due to inward thoughts like his marital issues, the thought of losing his job, and memory loss which is a symptom of the stress and anxiety he is unable to give his full attention to anything else. He is only taking in bits and pieces of information, because of the stress and the thoughts that are causing the stress. Stress is the reason behind Michael’s memory loss. Michael also stated that it is difficult for him to pay attention and that his mind wonders. This is due to what is called â€Å"flowing consciousness†. The brain will use this technique to take a break from the concentrated attention that is being given to the stress related issues that Michael is experiencing so it can focus on storing information in his long  term memory. In other words his working memory gets over loaded and must shut down partially to store information from his short term memory to his long term memory. There are several strategies that would help Michael strengthen his memory for example, yoga, exercise, Keep a datebook for appointments and number one is to take care of his health and eat nutritious meals. The body cannot function properly when it is sleep deprived and is experiencing a lack of nutrients. We all experience stress in our lives at one time or another it’s almost inevitable – sometimes it just can’t be helped. But we can change the way it affects us. References Ashcraft, M. H., Kirk, E. P. (2001). The relationships among working memory, math anxiety, and performance. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 130, 224-237. Azar, B. (2011). Amercian Psychological Association. The limits of eyewitness testimony. Retrieved June 03, 2012 from www.apa.org †º †º December 2011 Monitor on Psychology Cowan, N. (2005). A Workout for Working Memory.Retrieved June 03, 2012 from www.apa.org †º †º September 2005 Monitor on Psychology Clark, D. (2012). Atkinson Shiffrin three-stage model of memory (sensory, STM, LTM). Retrieved June 06, 2012 from donaldclarkplanb.blogspot.com//atkinson-shiffrin-three- stage- mod Luethi, M., Meier, B., Sandi, C. (2009). Stress Effects on Working Memory, Explicit Memory, and Implicit Memory for Neutral and Emotional Stimuli in Healthy Men. Retrieved June 03, 2012 from www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov †º †º Front Behav Neurosci †º v.2; 2008 Mcleod. S. (2007). Multistore Model of Memory- Akinson and Shiffren, 1968. Retrieved June 02, 2012 from www.simplypsychology.org/multi-store.html MRC (1993). Cognition and Brain Sciences Unit.Baddeley, A.D. (1993). Working memory or working attention? In A. Baddeley L. Weiskrantz (Eds.), Attention: Selection, awareness, and control: A tribute to Donald Broadbent (152-170). Retrieved June 03, 2012 from www.mrc-cbu.cam.ac.uk †º †º Articles listed by year of publication Thompson, J. (2000). Common Dreams. I was Certain but I was Dead Wrong. Retrieved June 03, 2012 from www.commondreams.org/views/062500-103.htm Bailey, R. (2012). About.Com. Limbic System. Retrieved June 03, 2012 from biology.about.com/od/anatomy/a/aa042205a.htm

Ethical Theories In International Business

Ethical Theories In International Business In recent years, the globalization has been continually stimulated towards nations in the world. Two main reasons that are able to explain the expansion on global business are the degeneration of trade barriers since the end of World War II in conjunction with the sharply increasing in development of the technology in various fields such as communication, information processing, internet and transportation (Y?cel, 2009). Numerous firms, even small businesses, have been increasingly entering into the international business as foreign markets are looked as possible sources of income to the firms. Thus, there are a great number of business people who working overseas and facing the different in environmental and cultural variances. The differences certainly make a lot of problems to the cross border businesses. Many problems have presumably been created due to the different environments and especially cross-cultural environment; ethical problem is one of these problems (Y?cel, 2009). In times past, ethics had not much effect on the business. However, ethical issues have been being in vogue by the arising of dishonesty in an international business. DeGeorge argues that The change in perception and attitude can be traced back to the exponential growth in industrial pollution, the rise of consumerism and the popular reaction to increasing numbers of scandals and corruption (DeGeorge, 2000, P.50). The purpose of this essay is to present the definition of ethics and ethical theories i.e. Deontology, Teleology and Golden Rule. Furthermore, there is a discussion regarding ethical problems that may be encountered when doing business internationally. Moreover, approaches and general guideline for firms to act ethically to the issues are displayed. Harvard Referencing Style is adopted for referencing in this essay. What is ethics? Ethics is the standards to determine what is right or wrong, what is better or worse, what people ought to do or ought not to do which conduct individuals or groups of how to behave. Ethics engages an examination into a reasonable justification for the set of standards that pervasively accepted by members of culture (Grossman, 2001). In addition, MacKinnon defines ethics as Ethics, or moral philosophy, asks basic questions about the good life, about what is better and worse, about whether there is any objective right and wrong, and how we know it if there is (MacKinnon, 2007, P.3). Thus, ethics in business can be defined as the framework of reasoned and appropriated justification that provides goods, profits, to the firm based on the acceptable affected on others including all stakeholders. Business ethics requires an inquiry of firms on their actions towards global (Cuizon, 2009). Ethics is also considered as glue that cements business together (DeGeorge, 2000). As the growth of concerns about an ethical issue, several ethical theories have been developed as a guidelines or rules in order to assist all human beings and also multinational corporations to behave ethically and avoid ethical issues in the business world. Deontological theory, Teleological theory and Golden Rule are some major theories to help flee from ethical issues. These theories have different approaches to justify the behavior of human or firm whether it is ethical or unethical. The first, deontological theory is the theory that makes an ethical judgment based on the intention of act with a neglect of outcome of that act whether the outcome is good or bad. In other words, deontological ethical decision-making process has concentrate on means rather than an outcome. Pojman defines deontological theory as It is not the consequences that determine the rightness or wrongness of an act but certain features in the act itself or in the rule of which the act is token or example (Pojman, 2001, P.134-135). For example, based on the real life experience, there have been many robbery cases in Thailand that the burglars carried a weapon with them whether for violating the victims or even hunting the victims down in order to done their job easier. However, some of these cases were ended up as a death of the heedless robbers themselves because the victims who were being stolen and violated actually had a gun and shot them down instead with intention to protect their lives. This example exemplifies and expresses a difference in the term of killing by based on the deontological theory, to killing somebody is totally wrong but killing with an intention of self-defense against the assault is absolutely different. In contrast of deontological theory, the teleological theory completely provides an opposite way of ethical decision-making process. While deontology has concerned on the means, the teleological theory has focused primarily on the net outcome rather than the means itself. The teleological ethical decision-making process can be defined as the theory that stresses on the examination of the result which caused by a behavior and determine the good or bad of that outcome based on the aggregated benefit consequences for others in culture. Pojman, also, characterizes the theory as The Greatest Happiness for the Greatest Number (Pojman, 1995, P.727). This, teleological theory, could provide a dissimilar option to the same example of deontology. If victims make a decision based on teleological theory, victims would not need to shoot the thieves but call the police instead. Hence, the robbers would be alive but be jailed and the victims would finally be saved by the police. The families of thi eves would not lose their family member and consequently the victims would not be guilt as no one got killed. A given sample situation displays a way of teleology ethical decision-making process which concerns the net benefit of outcome, that are consequences from the act, rather than the act itself. Last theory, the golden rule, is to act to other people in the way that you want to be acted by them. In other perception, golden rule can be defined as to bring others mind into our mind and not to treat others in the way that you do not want to be treated. Y?cel argues about the meaning of golden rule as doing unto others as you would have them do unto you (Y?cel, 2009, P.99). This theory is seemingly a general standards or norms in the deep of human being s mind towards various cultures and religions which can be used simply as a guideline to make an ethical decision in day to day life. For instance, based on the real experience, an engineer who has been working for the special company s project had an idea to largely reduce the cost of manufacturing of the firm. However, his colleague stole his idea and sold it to management level by himself without even a given credit to the originator of the idea. To think based on the golden rule, there is a simple question Would the stealer steal others idea and pretend that the idea was originated by himself if he falls in the same situation with a person whose idea was stolen? The answer is surely no because he would actually not want his idea to be stolen by others, suddenly, he would not do it. As explanation over the ethics and several ethical theories are presented and exemplified, it indicates that even an ordinary people could face the ethical problems in day to day life. In similarly but even much higher magnitude and severity, the across border businesses are encountered with the ethical issues that are particularly caused by the differences in law, politic, environment and culture between home country and host country. Cultural variances over the various groups in international business turn the business ethics to be more complicated (Y?cel, 2009). Many practices that are considered as ethical practices in some countries are declined or even illegal in other countries (Briscoe, 2009). Small and large scale of Bribery, Human rights, Child labor and Employment discrimination are examples of ethical problems in multinational enterprises (Deresky, 2008). One of ethical problems that cross border businesses have been being faced is employment discrimination. It can be defined as treating people including employee with inequality in hiring, promotion, retirement, work selection by based on various factors e.g. gender, age, race, religion and even marital status. Tomei also argues that This difference in treatment puts him or her at a disadvantage or limits his or her access to benefits and opportunities available to other members of society (Tomei, 2003, P.402). In Singapore, for example of the gender discrimination, working men are paid with higher salary than women employee just to protect the successfully in economics of male (MacKinnon, 2007). Another example based on working life experience, the big computer hard drive manufacturer in the world which has over 10 subsidiaries and subcontractors all over the globe was impacted by the recent world s economic crisis. The crisis caused the world s sales in technology sector including c omputer hard drive dropped rapidly. At that time, the company was directly forced by the loss of income to reduce its operating cost in order to sustain the firm and survive in the business. The firm s strategy to reduce the operating cost was finalized and appeared to be the salary deduction of all employees and layoff thousands of employees throughout the organization. A plant in Malaysia, which has been established to serve the repairing and rebuilding function on claimed hard drive from customers, was certainly affected as well as other plants in cross borders. While slashing in salary caused less impact to Malaysian employees, the much more painful was created to workers by discharge a number of employees; most of them were female operators who worked in the manufacturing processes and had age around 35 years old upward. The reason to dismiss these women based on their age regardless their individual working performances was stated by the American Vice President of Asia-Pacific Regional Operations as elders have less concentration and less working efficiency to work in detailed and micro job in assembly and disassembly of hard drive s components. This selective layoff based on age is considered as unethical behavior even the women, who were dismissed, were paid for compensation. These women could definitely not live their life by only based on a moderate paid of compensation. Consequently, they would have to find a new job. However, they would be faced by other discrimination in employment since companies in Malaysia tend to not hire employees 40 years of age or above. Women with an age of 40 and older have less chance to obtain a new employment (Dylyani, 2009). This loophole is caused by the differences in law. While USA has Age Discrimination in Employment Act (ADEA) as a shield of this ethical problem, Malaysia has no protector (Dylyani, 2009). The way to resolve these 2 employment discriminations, hiring and termination, would be based on the teleolog ical frameworks. VP of the hard drive firm would at least consider individual working performance of employees as a main factor to decide who would be dismissed individually and certainly not to dismiss by basing on only their age. In addition, the consequences of layoff ought to be considered because there has been a high probability that elder operators who were expelled would be difficult to acquire a new employment. Furthermore, discrimination in hiring would be resolved by adopting the same practices as ADEA as the country s law to close the gap of difference in legal, give back the equal and fairness among all age of employees and conduct firms to behave ethically regarding the problem. It has now become clear that ethics is necessary in international business and ethical issues are unavoidable for the firms who step into across borders. Managers in multinational enterprises are required to make a decision on ethical dilemmas based on the ethical decision making processes and frameworks. Nevertheless, in order to handle with ethical issues effectively by based on the firm s benefit as well as fairness among society, problem in employing the ethical theories to particular ethical issue is definitely emerged i.e. which ethical framework should be applied to certain ethical dilemma to get the best end result? There is possibly no clear answer for the managers regarding this question. Maybe the applicable guideline for managers is to asking by following questions: Does firm act legally under home and host country s laws? Does action conflict with the human rights of all affected by it? Does action conflict with host culture? And does action cause any harm or violation t o the public? To behave ethically is the challenge for the international firms but even more challenge is to apply the ethical guidelines and theories appropriately to the ethical dilemmas.

Land Resources Land As A Resource Environmental Sciences Essay

Land Resources Land As A Resource Environmental Sciences Essay Land or soil is one of the natural bases for human life and social development. Soils are defined and characterized on the basis of their morphological profiles because the assemblage of obvious physical features represented by these units are often related to the less obvious features of their chemical composition, chemical properties, and fertility. Men have tilled the soil and irrigated and drained it for at least six millennia. This is basic to civilization. Systematic scientific study of agriculture began in the first half of the nineteenth century, along with physical studies of the soil. In its natural state, the soil is normally a three-component porous medium consisting of solid soil particles, water, and air. Much of the water involved in the hydrologic cycle is located in soil between the time of its arrival as rain at the soil surface and that of its return to the atmosphere. The processes of water movement in soil play a central part in the scientific study of the terrestrial sector of the hydrologic cycle and in the problems of dry-land and irrigated agriculture, of plant ecology, and of soil biology. These determine the transport of materials in solution such as natural salts, fertilizers, and urban and industrial wastes through the soil. Properties such as infiltration, drainage, and retention of water in the soil layers; extraction of water by plant roots; and the evaporation of water from the soil are also important. The solid phase of the soil has mineral and organic matter, which is usually highly colloidal, seldom exceeds 5-10% by weight of soil. In an agricultural context, the main interest in soil structure is in terms of soil tilth, which is related to the ability of aggregates to maintain their integrity when the soil is irrigated, tilled, or otherwise worked so that water retention and drainage and aeration are kept at favorable levels. As soil is a complex mixture of many components there is usually little value in determining the amount of a chemical element present without any indication of the fraction of the soil in which it occurs and its form of combination. Indeed, fractions that comprise only a small proportion of the total soil mass are often very important in determining its behavior. The following is a convenient classification of soil fractions: The Organic Fraction, The Mineral Fraction, Soluble in water: Simple inorganic ions, Soluble in dilute acids: Carbonates, Insoluble in dilute acids. Primary minerals mainly occur in sand and silt fractions; secondary minerals usually occur in the clay fraction ( Organic Fraction Organic materials are added to soils as dead plant and animal remains. They are decomposed by the microflora and microfauna to form humus, an amorphous material distinct from undecomposed litter. Well-humified organic matter contains about 58 % carbon, so the amount of the soil organic fraction is usually specified by determining the organic carbon content and multiplying it by 1.73. Organic contents range from zero in some mineral subsoils, through 1 to 10 % in arable topsoils, to nearly 100% (of the dry weight) in some peat and muck soils. The amounts in surface soils depend on the balance between accumulation and decomposition, and these processes in turn are influenced by temperature and moisture content. Apart from carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, the organic fraction contains nitrogen, sulfur, and phosphorus. The proportions of these elements are often expressed as ratios compared to nitrogen taken as 10, and typical values are C:N = 80-150:10, S:N = 1.2-1.5:10, and P:N = 0.2-3.0:10. Metals such as aluminum, iron, manganese, and copper are also found in small amounts in humic complexes. The organic compounds in humus are very different. The main portion appears to consist of polymers, some of which are formed by random condensation of phenols, amino acids, and other related microbial degradation products. A large number of compounds have been isolated from humus extracts, but many of these must be artifacts. Of particular interest, apart from the polyphenols, are amino acids (implying that humus contains protein), sugars (indicating carbohydrate fractions), and amino sugars. The sulfur seems to be part of the main humus fraction, probably as sulfur-containing amino acids and organic sulphates. In some soils, much of the organic phosphorus is present as inositol polyphosphates, which appear not to be an integral part of the humus. Water-soluble Components The soluble-salt content of most soils is low so that the soil solution typically contains between 5 and 25 mmol/L of calcium and magnesium salts, mainly as nitrate. In saline soils, however, the salt content is of the order of 100 mmol/L, and although still less than 1% of the soil mass, the soluble salts dominate the behavior of the soil and include also sodium (Na+), chloride (Cl-), bicarbonate (HCO3-), and sulphate (SO4) ions. The salt content is normally determined in a saturation extract prepared by wetting the soil until it is just saturated with water and filtering off the extract under reduced pressure. The filtrate may be analyzed chemically, but a rapid indication of the degree of salinity is given by measuring its electrical conductivity. Conductivity values above 4 milliSiemens (mS) indicate that crop production may be reduced by salt damage, while above 20 mS only salt-tolerant species can survive. The approximate conductivity at 25Â °C of a 100 mmol/L solution referred to above is 8-10 mS. The reaction of soil is one of its most important diagnostic parameters. It is given by a pH measurement on the saturation extract or on a suspension of soil in water or in a dilute electrolyte solution. Strongly acid soils may have pH values down to 3.5, and strongly alkaline soils as high as 9.5, but more typical pH values of soils range from 5 to 8. Carbonates In soils formed from limestone rocks or other carbonate-containing sediments, carbonates occur mainly as calcite (CaCO3) but sometimes also as dolomite [(Ca, Mg)CO3]. They are important in the buffer system that controls the pH and cation balance of soil, and also for their reactions with anions, particularly phosphate. In their reactions with anions, the particle size and surface area of the soil carbonates are more important than the amount. Amounts of soil carbonate are estimated from the carbon dioxide evolved when the soil is treated with dilute acid, the results being expressed as a percentage by weight of the soil. In a leaching environment, soil carbonate is gradually removed by solution in carbonated water [CaCO3 + H2O + CO2 = Ca(HCO3)2] so that topsoils contain less carbonate than subsoils or the parent material. The leached carbonate may be concentrated by chemical precipitation at depth in the soil profile. Primary Minerals Soil analysis includes the separation and determination of sand, silt, and clay fractions by sieving and sedimentation. The mineral matter of soils is directly inherited from the parent material, although its composition is usually different depending on the age of the soil and the resistance of minerals to weathering. The minerals in the sand and silt fractions are mainly quartz and feldspars, plus a host of accessory minerals. Only the most resistant primary minerals remain in advanced stages of soil development, i.e., quartz (SiO2) as the major component, with smaller amounts of heavy metal oxides such as hematite (Fe2O3), magnetite (Fe3O4), and rutile (TiO2). Secondary Minerals The clay-sized ( Land Degradation Land degradation making the land unsuitable for habitat construction and agriculture has become a major problem in recent times. This has threatened the world food production as soil quality degradation results in severe reduction in crop yield. It is estimated that 15 percent of the worlds total land area has not maintained its quality due to a number of problems that include erosion, nutrient decline, salinization and physical compaction. The countries which are mainly dependent on agriculture as a national resource suffer more from the effects of land degradation. Some of the major soil degradation processes and the causes for them are given below. Loss of topsoil by erosion/surface wash. This results in a decrease in depth of the topsoil layer due to more or less uniform removal of soil material by run-off water. The possible causes are inappropriate land management especially in agriculture (insufficient soil cover, unobstructed flow of run-off water, deteriorating soil structure) leading to excessive surface run-off and sediment transport. Terrain deformation is an irregular displacement of soil material (by linear erosion or mass movement) causing clearly visible scars in the terrain. The possible causes are inappropriate land management in agriculture forestry or construction activities, allowing excessive amounts of run-off water to concentrate and flow unobstructed. Fertility decline and reduced organic matter content resulting in a net decrease of available nutrients and organic matter in the soil. This is likely to be due to imbalance between output (through harvesting, burning, leaching, etc.) and input (through manure/fertilizers, returned crop residues, flooding) of nutrients and organic matter. Soil contamination indicates the presence of an alien substance in the soil without significant negative effects and soil pollution signifies soil degradation as a consequence of location, concentration and adverse biological or toxic effects of a substance. The source of pollution may be waste dumps, spills, factory wasted, etc. The source can also be diffuse or airborne (atmospheric deposition of acidifying compounds and/or heavy metals. Eutrophication with the presence of an excess of certain soil nutrients, impairing plant growth. The possible causes are imbalanced application of organic and chemical fertilizer resulting in excess nitrogen, phosphorus; liming. Compaction resulting in deterioration of soil structure by trampling by cattle or the weight and/or frequent use of machinery. The possible causes are repeated use of heavy machinery, having a cumulative effect. Heavy grazing and overstocking may lead to compaction as well. Factors that influence compaction are ground pressure (by axle/wheel loads of the machinery used); frequency of the passage of heavy machinery; soil texture; soil moisture; climate. Sealing and crusting which is clogging of pores with fine soil material and development of a thin impervious layer at the soil surface obstructing the infiltration of rainwater. The possible causes are poor soil cover, allowing a maximum splash effect of raindrops; destruction of soil structure and low organic matter. Waterlogging that results from effects of human induced hydromorphism (i.e. excluding paddy fields). The possible causes are rising water table (e.g. due to construction of reservoirs/irrigation) and/or increased flooding caused by higher peak-flows. Lowering of the soil surface resulting from subsidence of organic soils, settling of soil. The possible causes are oxidation of peat and settling of soils in general due to lowering of the water table; solution of gypsum in the sub-soil (human-induced) or lowering of soil surface due to extraction of gas or water Loss of productive function which results from soil (land) being taken out of production for non-bio-productive activities, but not the eventual secondary degrading effects of these activities. The possible causes are urbanization and industrial activities; infrastructure; mining; quarrying, etc. Aridification, which is the decrease of average soil moisture content. The possible causes are lowering of groundwater tables for agricultural purposes or drinking water extraction; decreased soil cover and reduced organic matter content. Salinisation / alkalinization which is a net increase of the salt content of the (top)soil leading to a productivity decline. The possible causes are a distinction can be made between salinity problems due to intrusion of seawater (which may occur under all climate conditions) and inland salinisation, caused by improper irrigation methods and/or evaporation of saline groundwater. Dystrification, which is the lowering of soil pH through the process of mobilizing or increasing acidic compounds in the soil. Worldwide, almost 2,000Â  million hectares of land show at least minor signs of degradation, corresponding to approximately 1% of the ice-free surface. Around 300Â  million hectares of land surface are already seriously degraded. Soil degradation situation in India is shown in Fig. 2.10. Population growth and soil Population growth exerts enormous pressure on soils, and the soil degradation is due to additional migration and urbanization processes. The higher the rate of global population growth, the higher is the demand on the soil functions. There is already a growing disparity between growth-related demand and the availability of land. Many states are no longer capable of feeding their own populations with domestic agricultural products because they do not have enough land. Given the speed of population growth and the level of soil degradation already apparent, an increasing scarcity of soils available for meeting competing demands is expected. Two case studies of soil degradation 1. The Sahel Region The problems of soil degradation and desertification in the Sahel can be attributed to changes in nature as well as to socioeconomic causes. The nomadic groups in the Sahel are increasingly restricted in the mobility and flexibility that once provided them with a secure basis for ecological adaptation. Growing competition from other forms of land use, political measures and unclear or disadvantageous land-use rights led to their sedentarisation; they were pushed into more marginalized locations much less suitable for grazing livestock. The sensitive soils and ecosystems in the region are degraded as a result, mainly due to overgrazing. Subsistence farmers are similarly affected by displacement to marginal land that is unsuitable for farming. Greater mechanization without parallel soil protection measures (erosion protection, and suitable irrigation) has negative effects on the soils. Finally, cash crops (cotton, groundnuts) on fertile soils is not pursued in a sustainable fashion. These monocultures are farmed with the help of machines and pesticides, both of which can cause great problems. The Sahel also undergone tremendous social changes caused by internal and external conditions. Of importance is the general neglect of rural concerns and the orientation to agrarian export production through large-scale capital-intensive projects in the agricultural sector. External factors can be identified both in the global economic conditions (agricultural subsidies and/or export policies of the industrial nations, international debt) and in the practice of international development organizations, which in the past were not geared to the principle of sustainability, and which through their orientation to production technology gave too little consideration to the existing development potential. If the complex problems faced by the Sahel are to be solved, greater attention must be given to the socioeconomic causes and to organizational and financial decentralization. 2. The Leipzig-Halle-Bitterfeld region The soils in the Leipzig-Halle-Bitterfeld region are contaminated, in some cases alarmingly, by depositions of airborne pollutants through deliberate depositing of inorganic and organic substances. A prime cause of this contamination was the concentration of chemical industries, mining and energy production, all of which used outdated production methods. Since the turn of the century, there have been five brown coal mining fields, and large-scale chemical plants developed in Bitterfeld (paints and dyes), Leuna (methanol, nitrogen) and Buna (synthetic rubber). For economically and environmentally sound development of the region, soil remediation and the removal of contaminated soil are a matter of urgency, which requires considerable support from the state or from outside the region. Fig. 2.10. Soil degradation in India Landslide In a landslide, masses of rock, earth, or debris move down a slope. Landslides may be small or large, slow or rapid. They are activated by: storms, earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, fires, alternate freezing or thawing, and steepening of slopes by erosion or human modification. Debris and mudflows are rivers of rock, earth, and other debris saturated with water. They develop when water rapidly accumulates in the ground, during heavy rainfall or rapid snowmelt, changing the earth into a flowing river of mud or slurry. They can flow rapidly, striking with little or no warning at avalanche speeds. They can travel several miles from their source, growing in size as they pick up trees, boulders, and other materials. Landslide problems can be caused by land mismanagement, particularly in mountain, canyon, and coastal regions. In areas burned by forest and brush fires, a lower threshold of precipitation may initiate landslides. Land-use zoning, professional inspections, and proper design can minimize many landslide, mudflow, and debris flow problems. Protection from a landslide or debris flow (a) Guidelines for the period following a landslide: Stay away from the slide area. There may be danger of additional slides. Listen to local radio or television stations for the latest emergency information. Watch for flooding, which may occur after a landslide or debris flow. Floods sometimes follow landslides and debris flows because they may both be started by the same event. Check for injured and trapped persons near the slide, without entering the direct slide area. Ask for rescuers and give them correct locations. Help a neighbor who may require special assistance infants, elderly people, and people with disabilities. Elderly people and people with disabilities may require additional assistance. People who care for them or who have large families may need additional assistance in emergency situations. Inform appropriate authorities about damaged roadways, railways, electricity lines and other utilities. Reporting potential hazards will get the utilities turned off as quickly as possible, preventing further damage. Check building foundation, chimney, and surrounding land for damage. Damage to foundations, chimneys, or surrounding land may help assess the safety of the area. Replant damaged ground as soon as possible since erosion caused by loss of ground cover can lead to flash flooding and additional landslides in the near future. Seek advice from a geotechnical expert for evaluating landslide hazards or designing corrective techniques to reduce landslide risk. A professional will be able to advise you of the best ways to prevent or reduce landslide risk, without creating further hazard. (b) During a Landslide or Debris Flow What one should do if a landslide or debris flow occurs: Stay alert and awake. Many debris-flow fatalities occur when people are sleeping. Listen to radio or television for warnings of intense rainfall. Be aware that intense, short bursts of rain may be particularly dangerous, especially after longer periods of heavy rainfall and damp weather. If you are in areas susceptible to landslides and debris flows, consider leaving if it is safe to do so. Remember that driving during an intense storm can be hazardous. If you remain at home, move to a second story if possible. Staying out of the path of a landslide or debris flow saves lives. Listen for any unusual sounds that might indicate moving debris, such as trees cracking or boulders knocking together. A trickle of flowing or falling mud or debris may precede larger landslides. Moving debris can flow quickly and sometimes without warning. If one is near a stream or channel, he should be alert for any sudden increase or decrease in water flow and for a change from clear to muddy water. Such changes may indicate landslide activity upstream, so be prepared to move quickly. Dont delay! Save yourself, not your belongings. Be especially alert when driving. Embankments along roadsides are particularly susceptible to landslides. Watch the road for collapsed pavement, mud, fallen rocks, and other indications of possible debris flows. (c) What to do in case of Imminent Landslide Danger Contact your local fire, police, or public works department. Local officials are the best persons able to assess potential danger. Inform affected neighbors. Your neighbors may not be aware of potential hazards. Advising them of a potential threat may help save lives. Help neighbors who may need assistance to evacuate. Evacuate. Getting out of the path of a landslide or debris flow is your best protection. Curl into a tight ball and protect your head if escape is not possible. (d) Before a Landslide or Debris Flow Protect yourself from the effects of a landslide or debris flow: Do not build near steep slopes, close to mountain edges, near drainage ways, or natural erosion valleys. Get a ground assessment of your property. Contact local officials, geological surveys or departments of natural resources, and university departments of geology. Landslides occur where they have before, and in identifiable hazard locations. Ask for information on landslides in your area, specific information on areas vulnerable to landslides, and request a professional referral for a very detailed site analysis of your property, and corrective measures you can take, if necessary. If you are at risk from a landslide talk to your insurance agent. Debris flow may be covered by flood insurance policies. Minimize home hazards Have flexible pipe fittings installed to avoid gas or water leaks, as flexible fittings are more resistant to breakage (only the Gas Company or professionals should install gas fittings). Plant ground cover on slopes and build retaining walls. In mudflow areas, build channels or deflection walls to direct the flow around buildings. Remember: If you build walls to divert debris flow and the flow lands on a neighbors property, you may be liable for damages. Recognize Landslide Warning Signs Changes occur in your landscape such as patterns of storm-water drainage on slopes (especially the places where runoff water converges) land movement, small slides, flows, or progressively leaning trees. Doors or windows stick or jam for the first time. New cracks appear in plaster, tile, brick, or foundations. Outside walls, walks, or stairs begin pulling away from the building. Slowly developing, widening cracks appear on the ground or on paved areas such as streets or driveways. Underground utility lines break. Bulging ground appears at the base of a slope. Water breaks through the ground surface in new locations. Fences, retaining walls, utility poles, or trees tilt or move. Faint rumbling sound that increases in volume is noticeable as the landslide nears. The ground slopes downward in one direction and may begin shifting in that direction under your feet. Unusual sounds, such as trees cracking or boulders knocking together, might indicate moving debris. Collapsed pavement, mud, fallen rocks, and other indications of possible debris flow can be seen when driving (embankments along roadsides are particularly susceptible to landslides). Desertification The most critical and increasing threat to sustainable land use is desertification. It is estimated that desertification affects one-quarter of the total land area of the world, or about 70 percent of all dry lands, and threatens the livelihoods of over 1 billion people in more than 100 countries. Desertification is closely linked with rural poverty and hunger. It exacerbates conditions leading to famine, migration, internal displacement, political instability and conflict. Desertification is the degradation of land in arid, semi arid and dry sub-humid areas resulting from various climatic variations, but primarily from human activities. Current desertification is taking place much faster worldwide and usually arises from the demands of increasing population that settle on the land in order to grow crops and graze animals. A major impact of desertification is loss of biodiversity and productive capacity, for example, by transition from grassland to perennial shrubs. The change in vegetation induces desertification. In the Madagascar, 10% of the entire country has been lost to desertification due to zoom agriculture by indigenous people. In Africa, with current trends of soil degradation, the continent will be able to feed just 25% of its population by 2025 according to one estimate. Deserts may be separated from the surroundings by less arid areas, mountains and other landforms. In other areas, there is a gradual transition from a dry to a more humid environment, making it more difficult to determine the desert border. These transition zones have very fragile, delicately balanced ecosystems. Desert fringes are a mosaic of microclimates. Small hollows support vegetation that picks up heat from the hot winds and protects the land from the prevailing winds. After rainfall the vegetated areas are distinctly cooler than the surroundings. In these marginal areas human activity may stress the ecosystem beyond its tolerance limit, resulting in degradation of the land. By pounding the soil with their hooves, livestock compact the substrate, increase the proportion of fine material, and reduce the percolation rate of the soil, thus encouraging erosion by wind and water. Grazing and collection of firewood reduce or eliminate plants that help to bind the soil. In large desert areas, sand dunes can encroach on human habitats. Sand dunes move through wind. In a major dust storm, dunes may move tens of meters. And like snow, sand avalanches, falling down the steep slopes of the dunes that face away from the winds, move the dunes forward. Droughts by themselves cannot cause desertification. Drought is just a contributing factor. The causes are social and economic, having to do with access to resources, power and economics. Droughts are common in arid and semiarid lands, and well-managed lands can recover from drought when the rains return. Continued land abuse during droughts, however, increases land degradation. Increased population and livestock pressure on marginal lands has accelerated desertification. In some areas, nomads moving to less arid areas disrupt the local ecosystem and increase the rate of erosion of the land. Nomads are trying to escape the desert, but because of their land-use practices, they bring the desert with them. Some arid and semi-arid lands can support crops, but additional pressure from greater population or decreases in rainfall can lead to the disappearance of the few plants present. The soil becomes exposed to wind, causing soil particles to be deposited elsewhere. The top layer becomes eroded. With the removal of shade, rates of evaporation increase and salts become drawn up to the surface. This is salinisation, which inhibits plant growth. The loss of plants causes less moisture to be retained in the area, which may change the climate pattern leading to lower rainfall. The degradation of formerly productive land is a complex process. It involves multiple causes, and it proceeds at varying rates in different climates. Desertification may intensify a general climatic trend toward greater aridity, or it may initiate a change in local climate. Desertification does not occur in linear, easily mappable patterns. Deserts advance erratically, forming patches on their borders. Areas far from natural deserts can degrade quickly to barren soil, rock, or sand through poor land management. The presence of a nearby desert has no direct relationship to desertification. Unfortunately, an area undergoing desertification is brought to public attention only after the process is well under way. Often little data are available to indicate the previous state of the ecosystem or the rate of degradation. Combating desertification is complex and difficult. Over-exploitation of the land and climate variations can have identical impacts, which makes it very difficult to choose the right mitigation strategy. Measures like reforestation cannot achieve their goals if global warming continues. Forests may die when it gets drier, and more frequent extreme events could become a threat for agriculture, water supply, and infrastructure. Current desertification Overgrazing and to a lesser extent drought in the 1930s transformed parts of the Great Plains in the United States into the Dust Bowl. During that time, a considerable fraction of the population abandoned their homes to escape the unproductive lands. Improved agricultural and water management have prevented a disaster of the earlier magnitude from recurring, but desertification presently affects millions of people with primary occurrence in the less developed countries. Desertification is widespread in many areas of the Peoples Republic of China. The populations of rural areas have increased along with an increase in the livestock; the land available for grazing has decreased. Importing of European cattle, which have higher food intakes, has made things worse. Human overpopulation is leading to destruction of tropical wet and dry forests, due to widening practices of zoom cultivation. Deforestation has led to large scale erosion, loss of soil nutrients and sometimes total desertification. Overgrazing has made the Rio Puerco Basin of central New Mexico one of the most eroded river basins of the western United States and has increased the high sediment content of the river. Overgrazing is also an issue with some regions of South Africa such as the Waterberg Massif, although restoration of native habitat and game has been pursued vigorously since 1980. The Desert of Maine is a 40-acre dune of glacial silt near Freeport, Maine. Overgrazing and soil erosion exposed the cap of the dune, revealing the desert as a small patch that continued to grow, overtaking the land. Ghana and Nigeria currently experience desertification; in the latter, desertification overtakes about 1,355 square miles of land per year. The Central Asian countries, Afghanistan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan, are also affected. More than 80% of Afghanistans land is subject to soil erosion and desertification. In Kazakhstan, nearly half of the cropland has been abandoned since 1980. In Iran, sand storms were said to have bur